Calendar dating

Many numerical forms can create confusion when used in international correspondence, particularly when abbreviating the year to its final two digits. In the United States , dates are rarely written in purely numerical forms in formal writing, although they are very common elsewhere; when numerical forms are used, the month appears first.

In the United Kingdom, while it is regarded as acceptable albeit less common to write month-name day, year , this order is never used when written numerically. When numbers are used to represent months, a significant amount of confusion can arise from the ambiguity of a date order; especially when the numbers representing the day, month or year are low, it can be impossible to tell which order is being used. This can be clarified by using four digits to represent years, and naming the month; for example, "Feb" instead of "02". The ISO date order with four-digit years: The ISO standard also has the advantage of being language independent and is therefore useful when there may be no language context and a universal application is desired expiration dating on export products, for example.

In addition, the International Organization for Standardization considers its ISO standard to make sense from a logical perspective. Numbers are also written in that order, so the digits of indicate, in order, the millennium, the century within the millennium, the decade within the century, and the year within the decade.

The only date order that is consistent with these well-established conventions is year-month-day. A plain text list of dates with this format can be easily sorted by file managers , word processors , spreadsheets and other software tools with built-in sorting functions. Naming folders with YYYY-MM-DD at the beginning allows them to be listed in date order when sorting by name - especially useful for organising document libraries.

Federal Information Processing Standard recommended 2-digit years.

This is now widely recognized as a bad idea, because of the year problem. When transitioning from one date notation to another, people often write both styles; for example Old Style and New Style dates in the transition from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar. One of the advantages of using the ISO date format is that the lexicographical order ASCIIbetical of the representations is equivalent to the chronological order of the dates, assuming that all dates are in the same time zone.

Thus dates can be sorted using simple string comparison algorithms, and indeed by any left to right collation. This also works when a time in hour format is included after the date, as long as all times are understood to be in the same time zone.

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ISO is used widely where concise, human readable yet easily computable and unambiguous dates are required, although many applications store dates internally as UNIX time and only convert to ISO for display. It is worth noting that all modern computer Operating Systems retain date information of files outside of their titles, allowing the user to choose which format they prefer and have them sorted thus, irrespective of the files' names. For example, "11 December " can be written in some contexts as "" or "", for the th day of If the engine is sent on , it should arrive on Note that outside of the US military and some US government agencies, including the Internal Revenue Service , this format is usually referred to as " ordinal date ", rather than "Julian date" [13].

Such ordinal date formats are also used by many computer programs especially those for mainframe systems. Using a three-digit Julian day number saves one byte of computer storage over a two-digit month plus two-digit day, for example, "January 17" is in Julian versus in month-day format.

Another "ordinal" date system "ordinal" in the sense of advancing in value by one as the date advances by one day is in common use in astronomical calculations and referencing and uses the same name as this "logistics" system. The continuity of representation of period regardless of the time of year being considered is highly useful to both groups of specialists.

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The astronomers describe their system as also being a " Julian date " system. Unlike the system described above, the astronomical system does not consider years, it only counts days. Thus it is unperturbed by complications such as leap years. The insertion of the leap month mentioned above is based on the requirement that Passover —the festival celebrating the Exodus from Egypt, which took place in the spring—always occurs in the [northern hemisphere's] spring season. Since the adoption of a fixed calendar, intercalations in the Hebrew calendar have been assigned to fixed points in a year cycle.

Prior to this, the intercalation was determined empirically:. The year may be intercalated on three grounds: On two of these grounds it should be intercalated, but not on one of them alone. From very early times, the Mesopotamian lunisolar calendar was in wide use by the countries of the western Asia region. The structure, which was also used by the Israelites, was based on lunar months with the intercalation of an additional month to bring the cycle closer to the solar cycle, although there is no evidence of a thirteenth month mentioned anywhere in the Hebrew Bible.

According to the Mishnah and Tosefta , in the Maccabean, Herodian, and Mishnaic periods, new months were determined by the sighting of a new crescent, with two eyewitnesses required to testify to the Sanhedrin to having seen the new lunar crescent at sunset. At first the beginning of each Jewish month was signaled to the communities of Israel and beyond by fires lit on mountaintops, but after the Samaritans began to light false fires, messengers were sent.

In his work Mishneh Torah , Maimonides included a chapter "Sanctification of the New Moon", in which he discusses the calendrical rules and their scriptural basis. By approximately 11 days. Therefore, whenever this excess accumulates to about 30 days, or a little more or less, one month is added and the particular year is made to consist of 13 months, and this is the so-called embolismic intercalated year.

For the year could not consist of twelve months plus so-and-so many days, since it is said: Both the Syrian calendar , currently used in the Arabic-speaking countries of the Fertile crescent , and the modern Assyrian calendar share many of the names for months with the Hebrew calendar, such as Nisan, Iyyar, Tammuz, Ab, Elul, Tishri and Adar, indicating a common origin.

The former name for October was Tesrin.

At this time they adopted the Babylonian names for the months. The Babylonian calendar descended directly from the Sumerian calendar.

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Biblical references to the pre-exilic calendar include ten months identified by number rather than by name. In parts of the Torah portion Noach "Noah" specifically, Gen 7: Prior to the Babylonian exile, the names of only four months are referred to in the Tanakh:. All of these are believed to be Canaanite names. In a regular kesidran year, Marcheshvan has 29 days and Kislev has 30 days.

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However, because of the Rosh Hashanah postponement rules see below Kislev may lose a day to have 29 days, and the year is called a short chaser year, or Marcheshvan may acquire an additional day to have 30 days, and the year is called a full maleh year. The calendar rules have been designed to ensure that Rosh Hashanah does not fall on a Sunday, Wednesday or Friday. This is to ensure that Yom Kippur does not directly precede or follow Shabbat , which would create practical difficulties, and that Hoshana Rabbah is not on a Shabbat, in which case certain ceremonies would be lost for a year.

The solar year is about eleven days longer than twelve lunar months. The Bible does not directly mention the addition of "embolismic" or intercalary months. However, without the insertion of embolismic months, Jewish festivals would gradually shift outside of the seasons required by the Torah. This has been ruled as implying a requirement for the insertion of embolismic months to reconcile the lunar cycles to the seasons, which are integral to solar yearly cycles.

When the observational form of the calendar was in use, whether or not an embolismic month was announced after the "last month" Adar depended on 'aviv [i. Thus, if Adar was over and spring had not yet arrived, an additional month was observed. Traditionally, for the Babylonian and Hebrew lunisolar calendars , the years 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, and 19 are the long month years of the Metonic cycle. This cycle forms the basis of the Christian ecclesiastical calendar and the Hebrew calendar and is used for the computation of the date of Easter each year.

Adar I is actually considered to be the extra month, and has 30 days.

Hebrew calendar

Chronology was a chief consideration in the study of astronomy among the Jews; sacred time was based upon the cycles of the Sun and the Moon. The Talmud identified the twelve constellations of the zodiac with the twelve months of the Hebrew calendar. The discrepancy compared to the mean synodic month of This means that the calendar year normally contains days. The Hebrew calendar year conventionally begins on Rosh Hashanah.

However, other dates serve as the beginning of the year for different religious purposes. There are three qualities that distinguish one year from another: In Hebrew there are two common ways of writing the year number: From the eleventh century, anno mundi dating became dominant throughout most of the world's Jewish communities.

Since the codification by Maimonides in , the Jewish calendar has used the Anno Mundi epoch Latin for "in the year of the world," abbreviated AM or A. According to rabbinic reckoning, the beginning of "year 1" is not Creation , but about one year before Creation, with the new moon of its first month Tishrei to be called molad tohu the mean new moon of chaos or nothing. For earlier years there may be a discrepancy [see: Missing years Jewish calendar ].

The Seder Olam Rabbah also recognized the importance of the Jubilee and Sabbatical cycles as a long-term calendrical system, and attempted at various places to fit the Sabbatical and Jubilee years into its chronological scheme. Before the adoption of the current AM year numbering system, other systems were in use.

In early times, the years were counted from some significant historic event. This practice was also followed by the united kingdom of Israel e. Besides, the author of Kings coordinated dates in the two kingdoms by giving the accession year of a monarch in terms of the year of the monarch of the other kingdom, e. For example, Jewish communities in the Babylonian diaspora counted the years from the first deportation from Israel, that of Jehoiachin in BCE, e.

The era year was then called "year of the captivity of Jehoiachin".

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During the Hellenistic Maccabean period, Seleucid era counting was used, at least in the Greek-influenced area of Israel. The Books of the Maccabees used Seleucid era dating exclusively e. Josephus writing in the Roman period also used Seleucid era dating exclusively. During the Talmudic era, from the 1st to the 10th century, the center of world Judaism was in the Middle East, primarily in the Talmudic Academies of Iraq and Palestine. Jews in these regions used Seleucid era dating also known as the "Era of Contracts".

Jacob then put this question: How do we know that our Era [of Documents] is connected with the Kingdom of Greece at all? Why not say that it is reckoned from the Exodus from Egypt, omitting the first thousand years and giving the years of the next thousand? In that case, the document is really post-dated! In the Diaspora the Greek Era alone is used. He [the questioner] thought that Rav Nahman wanted to dispose of him anyhow, but when he went and studied it thoroughly he found that it is indeed taught [in a Baraita ]: The use of the era of documents i.

Occasionally in Talmudic writings, reference was made to other starting points for eras, such as destruction era dating, [38] being the number of years since the 70 CE destruction of the Second Temple. In the 8th and 9th centuries, as the center of Jewish life moved from Babylonia to Europe, counting using the Seleucid era "became meaningless".

In ancient Israel, the start of the ecclesiastical new year for the counting of months and festivals i. Passover is on 15 Nisan, Leviticus As Passover is a spring festival, it should fall on a full moon day around, and normally just after, the vernal northward equinox. If the twelfth full moon after the previous Passover is too early compared to the equinox, a leap month is inserted near the end of the previous year before the new year is set to begin.

According to normative Judaism, the verses in Exodus Hence the court, not the astronomy, has the final decision. According to some Christian and Karaite sources, the tradition in ancient Israel was that 1 Nisan would not start until the barley is ripe, being the test for the onset of spring.

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