Find articles by Laurence Steinberg. Author information Copyright and License information Disclaimer. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to the author, at the Department of Psychology, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA See other articles in PMC that cite the published article. Abstract This article proposes a framework for theory and research on risk-taking that is informed by developmental neuroscience. False Leads in the Prevention and Study of Adolescent Risk-Taking The primary approach to reducing adolescent risk-taking has been through educational programs, most of them school-based.
A Social Neuroscience Perspective on Adolescent Risk-Taking Advances in the Developmental Neuroscience of Adolescence The last decade has been one of enormous and sustained interest in patterns of brain development during adolescence and young adulthood. A Tale of Two Brain Systems Two fundamental questions about the development of risk-taking in adolescence motivate this review. Remodeling of the Dopaminergic System at Puberty Important developmental changes in the dopaminergic system take place at puberty Chambers et al.
Steroid-Independent and Steroid-Dependent Processes I noted earlier that it is common to attribute this dopaminergic-mediated change in reward salience and reward-seeking to the impact of pubertal hormones on the brain, an attribution that I myself made in earlier writings on the subject e. Adolescent Sensation-Seeking and Evolutionary Adaptation Although structural changes in the dopaminergic system that occur at puberty may not be directly due to the activational influences of pubertal hormones, it nevertheless makes good evolutionary sense that the emergence of some behaviors, such as sensation-seeking, occur around puberty, especially among males among whom the dopaminergic remodeling is more pronounced, as noted earlier see also Spear, Changes in Neural Oxytocin at Puberty The remodeling of the dopaminergic system is one of several important changes in synaptic organization that likely undergird the increase in risk-taking that takes place early in adolescence.
Peer Influences on Risk-Taking The proposed link between the proliferation of oxytocin receptors and increased risk-taking in adolescence is not intuitively obvious; indeed, given the importance of oxytocin in maternal bonding, one might predict just the reverse i. Arousal of the Socio-Emotional System at Puberty In summary, there is strong evidence that the pubertal transition is associated with a substantial increase in sensation-seeking that is likely due to changes in reward salience and reward sensitivity resulting from a biologically-driven remodeling of dopaminergic pathways in what I have called the socio-emotional brain system.
Structural Maturation of the Cognitive Control System Three important changes in brain structure during adolescence are now well-documented see Paus, , for a summary. Functional Changes in the Cognitive Control System Functional studies of brain development in adolescence are largely consistent with the findings from structural studies and from studies of cognitive and psychosocial development.
Coordination of Cortical and Subcortical Functioning A second, but less well documented, change in brain function during adolescence involves the increasing involvement of multiple brain regions in tasks involving the processing of emotional information e.
Open in a separate window. Changes in Brain Connectivity and the Development of Resistance to Peer Influence The improved connectivity between cortical and subcortical areas also has implications for understanding changes in susceptibility to peer influence, which, as I noted, is an important contributor to risk behavior during adolescence.
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Improvements in Cognitive Control Over Adolescence and Young Adulthood In sum, risk taking declines between adolescence and adulthood for two, and perhaps, three reasons. Acknowledgments Preparation of this article was supported by funding from the John D. Footnotes 1 Many of the items on the full Zuckerman scale appear to measure impulsivity, not sensation seeking e. Beautiful faces have variable reward value: Cognitive neuroscience of human social behavior. Pubertal changes in gonadal hormones do not underlie adolescent dopamine receptor overproduction. Perceived peer behavior and the timing of sexual debut in Rwanda: A survival analysis of youth data.
Journal of Youth and Adolescence. What were you thinking?. Functional magnetic resonance imaging of facial affect recognition in children and adolescents.
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Perspectives from developmental cognitive neuroscience. Oxford University Press; Carolina Population Center; Decision making, impulse control and loss of willpower to resist drugs: Insensitivity to future consequences following damage to human prefrontal cortex. The Tower of London spatial problem solving task: Enhancing clinical and research implementation. Journal of Experimental and Clinical Neuropsychology. Comparing the emotional brain of humans and other animals. Handbook of affective sciences. Perceived consequences of risky behaviors: Incentive-elicited brain activation in adolescents: Similarities and differences from young adults.
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Developmental changes in real life decision making: Performance on a gambling task previously shown to depend on the ventromedial prefrontal cortex. Brain regions mediating flexible rule use during development. A period of vulnerabilities and opportunities. The evolution and future of the human animal. DiBlasio F, Benda B. Gender differences in theories of adolescent sexual activity. Social cognitive correlates of sexual experience and condom use among through year-old adolescents.
Reciprocal suppression of regional cerebral blood flow during emotional versus higher cognitive processes: Transient dopamine synthesis modulation in prefrontal cortex: A shift from diffuse to focal cortical activity with development. A neural basis for development of inhibitory control. Journal of Marriage and the Family. Quantitative diffusion tensor tractography of association and projection fibers in normally developing children and adolescents.
How effective is drug abuse resistance education? American Journal of Public Health. Amygdala and nucleus accumbens activation in response to receipt and omission of gains in adults and adolescents.
- A Social Neuroscience Perspective on Adolescent Risk-Taking.
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Choice selection and reward anticipation: Handbook of developmental social neuroscience. Guilford Press; in press. Philosophical conceptions of the self: Implications for cognitive science. Trends in Cognitive Sciences. The role of ventral frontostriatal circuitry in reward-based learning in humans. Earlier development of the accumbens relative to orbitofrontal cortex might underlie risk-taking behavior in adolescents.
Risk-taking and the adolescent brain: Who is at risk? The neurobiology and genetics of addiction: Russell Sage Foundation; Gardner M, Steinberg L.
Peer influence on risk taking, risk preference, and risky decision making in adolescence and adulthood: Discounting of delayed rewards across the life span: Age differences in individual discounting functions. The neural bases of cognitive conflict and control in moral judgment. Neural mechanisms of resistance to peer influence in early adolescence.
Gender differences in risk assessment: Judgment and Decision Making. Cortical regions for judgments of emotions and personality traits from point-light walkers. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. Issues in adolescent health: Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development; Hoffman E, Haxby J. Distinct representations of eye gaze and identity in the distributed human neural system for face perception. Implications for the development of decision making and ventromedial prefrontal cortex.
Mapping of chemical trigger zones for reward. Gonadal steroids have paradoxical effects on brain oxytocin receptors. How the brain processes social information: Searching for the social brain. Annual Review of Neuroscience. Initiation of use of alcohol, cigarettes, marijuana, cocaine, and other substances in US birth cohorts since The preservation of two infant temperaments into adolescence. Developmental change in speed of processing during childhood and adolescence. Processing time, imagery, and spatial memory. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology. Cognitive and brain development.